Homeostasis, health and disease and its relationship with lung cancer

Homeostasis, health and disease and its relationship with lung cancer

The immune system is able to respond to the presence of cancer cells through two ways that share similarities with each other. Both consist of a reaction to the antigens that the cancer cell shows, whether specific or associated with the tumor. These tumor antigens are the product of mutated proteins, which have the function of identifying, in this case, the granuloma within the organism. (Finn, 2008)

The neoplasia caused by viruses shows viral antigens, which in turn, serve as tumor antigens. For example, the E6 and E7 genes function as biomarkers that help identify the presence of the human papillomavirus, and therefore, the formation of cervical carcinoma (Finn, 2008).

Likewise, both procedures act according to the cancer immunity cycle. The genetic and cellular alterations provide the necessary stimuli to the immune system to generate T lymphocytes, which are responsible for recognizing and eradicating cancer cells (Chen, Mellman 2013). ^{1}This cycle is presented below:

However, according to the NIH (National Institute of Health), the autonomous response of the immune system is sometimes insufficient, so immunotherapy methods are implemented. Of which stand out:

• Non-specific immune stimulation: Medicines are used to increase the overall immune response of the individual.

• T-cell transfer therapy: T-lymphocytes are removed from the patient and then cultured in a laboratory so they can proliferate. Finally, they are reintroduced to the patient.

• Inhibitors of immune control points: Drugs that manually activate T cells in order to attack cancer cells.

As far as lung cancer is concerned, the HGNC EGFR gene is one of quite a few genes used as tumor biomarkers to reflect molecular characteristics of neoplastic cells and thus, deal with this disease effectively. (Ogino, Galon, Fuchs, Dranoff 2011)

According to class IB1005.1 "Fundamentals of biological systems", genomic medicine and pharmacogenetics have a primary role when discussing cancer treatments.

The purposes to which researchers aspire when dealing with patients suffering from cancer is to cure the disease, prolong survival and improve the quality of life. For that reason, it is essential to identify the informational biomarkers involved in patient therapies, to provide personalized medicines and offer the optimal treatment for each individual, as well as reducing adverse effects. (Ogino, et al. 2011)

Psychological stress is a disorder that occurs when an individual perceives that everyday demands exceed his/her ability to adapt (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, Miller 2007). That is, what a person feels when they are under mental, physical or emotional pressure. (NIH, 2012)

It is generally assumed that stress influences the creation, development and spread of a pathogen; But what relationship exists between what science dictates and what is stipulated by popular belief?

 Psychological stress occurs through negative affective states, such as anxiety or depression, which consequently exhibit direct effects on the biological processes or behavior patterns of the individual, hence, increasing the risk of contracting a disease, (Cohen, Janicki -Deverts, Miller 2007).

The presence of occasional psychological stress in the body triggers two endocrine response systems: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system (SAM) are responsible for producing hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine , which regulate the physiological processes of the body. Also, when these hormones perceive a “threat”, they respond by rising glucose levels in the blood, increasing heart rate and blood pressure among other actions (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, Miller 2007).

However, if the patient suffers from chronic stress, prolonged activation of the HPA and SAM systems will interfere with the proper control of physiological processes, weakening systems such as the immune; opening a pathway to physical and psychiatric disorders (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, Miller 2007).

Research put into the relationship between cancer and stress has been diminished by ethical considerations that prohibit the use of humans in experiments. In addition, the ambiguity and lack of consistency in the results of certain studies compromise the verdict that, in effect, stress is a pioneer in the creation of a cancer cell. Hence, it is difficult to find a cause and effect relationship between these two types of disorders with the evidence that has been presented. However, the effects that stress implements on an individual can cause a series of events that stimulate the growth of a tumor. Antiviral defenses, DNA repair and cell aging are vital pathogenic processes that are compromised by being subject to high levels of stress (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, Miller 2007).

In conclusion, limited samples of studies and experiments result in weak evidence that supports psychological stress causing some type of cancer. However, the stress generated by environmental and demographic factors incites the progression of cancer and other diseases.

References:

•     - Finn, O. J. (2008). Cancer Immunology. New England Journal of Medicine, 358(25), 2704–2715. doi:10.1056/nejmra072739
•         - Chen, D. S., & Mellman, I. (2013). Oncology Meets Immunology: The Cancer-Immunity Cycle. Immunity, 39(1), 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2013.07.012
•          -Woo, E. Y., Yeh, H., Chu, C. S., Schlienger, K., Carroll, R. G., Riley, J. L., … June, C. H. (2002). Cutting Edge: Regulatory T Cells from Lung Cancer Patients Directly Inhibit Autologous T Cell Proliferation. The Journal of Immunology, 168(9), 4272–4276. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.168.9.4272
•          -Ogino, S., Galon, J., Fuchs, C. S., & Dranoff, G. (2011). Cancer immunology—analysis of host and tumor factors for personalized medicine. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, 8(12), 711–719. doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2011.122
•         - de León, Joel, & Pareja, Arturo. (2018). Inmunología del cáncer I: bases moleculares y celulares de la respuesta inmune antitumoral. Horizonte Médico (Lima), 18(3), 80-89. https://dx.doi.org/10.24265/horizmed.2018.v18n3.1
•        - Inmunoterapia para el cáncer. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/espanol/cancer/tratamiento/tipos/inmunoterapia
•          - Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007). Psychological Stress and Disease. JAMA, 298(14), 1685. doi:10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
•          - Estrés psicológico y el cáncer. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/espanol/cancer/sobrellevar/sentimientos/hoja-informativa-estres